Coup d'état
From The Book of THoTH (Leaves of Wisdom)
A coup d'état (pronounced /ku de'ta/), or simply a coup, is the sudden overthrow of a government through unconstitutional means by a part of the state establishment that mostly replaces just the top power figures. It may or may not be violent in nature. It is different from a revolution, which is staged by a larger group and radically changes the political system. The term is French for "a (sudden) blow (or strike) to a state" (literally, coup, hit, and état, state). The term coup can also be used in a casual sense to mean a gain in advantage of one nation or entity over another; e.g. an intelligence coup. By analogy, the term is also applied to corporations, etc; e.g. a boardroom coup.
Since the unsuccessful coup attempts of Wolfgang Kapp in 1920, and of Adolf Hitler in 1923, the Swiss German word "Putsch" (originally coined with the Züriputsch of 1839) is often used also, even in French (such as the putsch of November 8, 1942 and the putsch of April 21, 1961, both in Algiers), while the direct German translation is Staatsstreich.
Tactically, a coup usually involves control of some active portion of the military while neutralizing the remainder of a country's armed services. This active group captures or expels leaders, seizes physical control of important government offices, means of communication, and the physical infrastructure, such as streets and power plants. The coup succeeds if its opponents fail to dislodge the plotters, allowing them to consolidate their position, obtain the surrender or acquiescence of the populace and surviving armed forces, and claim legitimacy.
Coups typically use the power of the existing government for its own takeover. As Edward Luttwak remarks in his Coup d'État: A Practical Handbook: "A coup consists of the infiltration of a small but critical segment of the state apparatus, which is then used to displace the government from its control of the remainder." In this sense, use of military or other organized force is not the defining feature of a coup d'état.
History
Coups have long been part of political tradition. Indeed, Julius Caesar orchestrated a coup and was subsequently the victim of another coup. Many Roman emperors, such as Claudius, came to power in coups, as did King Jehu of Israel. In the November of 1799, Napoleon Bonaparte staged a coup and seized power in France.
In the late 20th century coups occurred most commonly in developing countries, particularly in Latin America (e.g. Brazil, Chile, Bolivia, and Argentina), Africa and Asia (Pakistan), but also in the Asia Pacific (Fiji and the Philippines) and in Europe (e.g. Greece, Portugal, Spain, and the Soviet Union). Since the 1980s, the coup has been seen somewhat less frequently. A significant reason is the general inability to resolve the economic and political problems of developing nations, which has made armed forces, particularly in Latin America, much more reluctant to intervene in politics. Hence, in contrast to past crises, the armed forces have sat on the sidelines through economic crises such as the Asian financial crisis in Thailand in 1998 or the Argentine crisis of 2002 and have tended to act only when the military perceives itself as institutionally threatened by the civilian government, as occurred in Pakistan in 1999.
Coups d'état have often been seen as a means for powerful nations to assure favorable outcomes in smaller foreign states. In particular, the American CIA and Soviet KGB developed a reputation for supporting coups in states such as Chile and Afghanistan, respectively. Such actions are substitutes for direct military intervention which would have been more politically unpopular. The governments of France and Great Britain have, among others, engineered coups as well.
Recent forms of coup
In recent years, use of the traditional military coup has declined. A new, more contemporary form of military intervention which some regard as a coup d'état is simple threat of military force to remove a particularly unpopular leader. This has occurred twice in the Philippines. In contrast to previous coups d'état, the military does not directly assume power, but rather serves as an arbiter for civilian leaders.
In Mauritania a bloodless coup d'état happened on August 3, 2005 when the president was in Saudi Arabia.
In recent years mass street protests have also often been able to force unpopular and corrupt leaders from office in a coup-like fashion. In situations of this sort, such as in Serbia (2000), Argentina (2001), Bolivia (2003), Ukraine (2004–2005), Lebanon, Ecuador and Bolivia (2005), popular uprisings simply forced the sitting president to resign his office, causing someone new to assume the presidency. This often results in a period of stability and calm, in which an unknown and uncontroversial vice president can rule the nation until new elections can be held.
In 2002 the United States allegedly supported a coup in Venezuela against President Hugo Chávez, despite Chávez having been elected by popular vote in two consecutive elections. The coup failed, mainly due to sizable public protests in support of Chávez which dwarfed rallies launched by his opponents. Chávez was returned to office two days after the coup, the provisional military junta was dissolved, and the democratic government survived a referendum on new elections by a large margin. In cases such as these, popular protests have been able to prevent coups and place popular leaders back in office.
Types of coups
Samuel P. Huntington has divided coups into three types (ignoring Luttwak's non-military coups)
- Breakthrough coups: In which a revolutionary army overthrows a traditional government and creates a new bureaucratic elite. Breakthrough coups are generally led by non-commissioned officers (NCOs) or junior officers and only happen once. Examples include China in 1911, Egypt in 1952, Greece in 1967 and Liberia in 1980.
- Guardian coups: These coups have been described as musical chairs. The stated aim of this form of coup is to improve public order, efficiency, or to end corruption. There is usually no fundamental shift in the structure of power, and the leaders of these types of coups generally portray their actions as a temporary and unfortunate necessity. Many nations with guardian coups undergo many shifts between civilian and military governments. Examples include Pakistan, Turkey, and Thailand.
- Veto coups: These coups occur when the army vetoes mass participation and social mobilization. In these cases the army must confront and suppress large-scale and broad-based opposition and as a result they tend to be repressive and bloody. Examples include Chile in 1973 and Argentina in 1976, as well as the overthrow of President Fujimori of Peru in 2000. An abortive and botched veto coup occurred in Venezuela in 2002.
Coups can also be classified by the level of the military that leads the coup. Veto coups and guardian coups tend to be led by senior officers. Breakthrough coups tend to be led by junior officers or NCOs. In cases where the coup is led by junior officers or enlisted men, the coup is also a mutiny which can have grave implications for the organizational structure of the military.
There is also a category known as bloodless coups in which the mere threat of violence is enough to force the current government to step aside. Bloodless coups are so called because they involve no violence and thus no bloodshed. Napoleon's 18 Brumaire coup is often pointed out as an example of bloodless coup, showing that bloodless coups are not always considered to be "bloodless": on 18 Brumaire, several members of parliament were thrown out the windows of the building where they assembled. More recently, Pervez Musharraf of Pakistan came to power in a bloodless coup in 1999.
The term self-coup is used when the current government assumes extraordinary powers not allowed by the legislation. An example is Alberto Fujimori in Peru, who was democratically elected, but later took control of the legislative and judicial powers, or the coup of French Emperor Louis Napoléon Bonaparte in 1851 against the powerful National Assembly; some argue that the assumption of "emergency powers" by King Gyanendra of Nepal is a self-coup.
Post-military-coup governments
After the coup, the military is faced with the issue of the type of government to establish. In Latin America, it was common for the post-coup government to be led by a junta, a committee of the chiefs of staff of the various armed forces. A common form of African post-coup government is the revolutionary assembly, a quasi-legislative body made of members elected by the army. In Pakistan, the military leader typically assumes the title of chief martial law administrator.
According to Huntington, most coup leaders act under the concept of right orders: they believe that the best way to solve the problems their country is facing is to issue correct orders. This view of government underestimates the difficulty in implementing government policy and the amount of possible political resistance to certain orders.
Coups and coup attempts before the twentieth century
- 1799: Coup de 18 Brumaire by Napoléon Bonaparte.
- 1851: French coup of 1851.
- 1874: Arsenio Martínez Campos overthrows the First Spanish Republic and installs Alfonso XII as king.
- 1889: a military coup led by Mal. Deodoro da Fonseca desposes the Brazilian Emperor, Peter II, proclamates the Republic and installs a provisorial government.
- 1893: With the aid of U.S. Marines, U.S. Department of State Minister to the Kingdom of Hawaii, John L. Stevens backs businessmen of native and foreign nationality in a coup that deposes Queen Lili'uokalani.
Coups and coup attempts in the twentieth century
- 1910: A republican coup d'état deposes King Manuel II of Portugal and establishes the Portuguese First Republic.
- 1913: Victoriano Huerta overthows the president of Mexico, Francisco Madero, in a coup.
- 1920: The Kapp Putsch, a failed attempt to overthrow Germany's Weimar Republic by the Freikorps Ehrhardt.
- 1923: Miguel Primo de Rivera installs a dictatorship in Spain without overthrowing the king.
- 1923: The Beer Hall Putsch, a failed coup attempt by Adolf Hitler in Germany.
- 1924: Chilean President Arturo Alessandri resigns and flees after the army, led by Luis Altamirano, heads a coup.
- 1926: Coup of Jozef Pilsudski in Poland.
- 1926: 28th May military coup of Gomes da Costa in Portugal.
- 1930: Argentine President Hipólito Irigoyen ousted by General Jose F. Uriburu.
- 1932: The Mäntsälä Rebellion, failed coup attempt by the Lapua Movement in Finland.
- 1932: The May 15th Incident, a military coup in Japan.
- 1932: The Chilean military heads a coup, which deposes President Juan Esteban Montero and creates the Socialist Republic of Chile. After twelve days, other army officers head a counter-coup and end the Socialist Republic. The new provisional president, Abraham Oyanedel, restores democracy.
- 1933: General Butler led the Bonus Army and came forward to the U.S. Congress in 1933 to report that a failed coup had been plotted [1] by wealthy industrialists seeking to overthrow the government of President Franklin D. Roosevelt. This scandal is known as the Business Plot.
- 1934: Coup of Kārlis Ulmanis in Latvia.
- 1934: Coup of Konstantin Päts in Estonia.
- 1935: Coup of Ioannis Metaxas in Greece.
- 1936 Xian Incident, General Chiang Kai-shek was kidnapped by his deputy Zhang Hsue-liang, who demanded Chiang stop fighting the Chinese Communists. Madame Chiang and her brother T.V. Soongs' subsequent negotiation with Zhang ensure the Generalissimo's release. But Chiang's cease-fire with the Chinese communist gave them time to recuperate and strengthen so much that after WWII their troops outnumber Chiang's and they were able to take over all China, with the exception of Taiwan.
- 1936: Part of the army seizes control of parts of Spain commencing the Spanish Civil War. Later General Francisco Franco assumes control of the country.
- 1936: The February 26th Incident, a failed coup attempt in Japan by junior military officers that did succeed in installing a militarist government.
- 1937: Brazilian president Getúlio Vargas, governing democratically until then, launches a self-coup and becomes the Dictator of Brazilian Estado Novo.
- 1940: Soviet organised Coups in Baltic States
- 1942: French resistance coup in Algiers, by which 400 Civil French patriots neutralized Vichyst XIXth Army Corps in Algiers during 15 hours, arrested vichyst generals (Juin, Darlan, etc.), and so allowed the immediate success of Operation Torch.
- 1943: Military coup in Argentina leads to the ascent of extremely popular President Juan Perón.
- 1944: The July 20 Plot, a failed attempt to overthrow Hitler in Nazi Germany, led by Claus von Stauffenberg.
- 1945: Getúlio Vargas's government ends in a coup led by General Mourão, one of his former supporters.
- 1947: Coup in Thailand.
- 1948: Communist coup in Czechoslovakia.
- 1952: Military coup in Egypt.
- 1952: Fulgencio Batista leads successful and bloodless coup to topple democratically elected government of Cuba.
- 1953: Anglo-American coup in Iran, codenamed Operation Ajax.
- 1954: Military coup in Paraguay.
- 1955: A contra-coup in Brazil led by Marshal Lott overtrhown the two-days-long legal government of Carlos Luz and prevents a coup against the elected president Juscelino Kubitschek.
- 1955: Military coup overthrows Argentine President Juan Perón
- 1958: Military coup in Pakistan. Army Chief and Defence Minister Gen. Ayub Khan overthrows the government of Iskander Mirza and becomes President after a winning a rigged referendum.
- 1958: Civic/Military coup in Venezuela, overthrowing Marcos Perez Jimenez.
- 1958: Military coup in Iraq overthrows the monarchy.
- 1960: Military coup in Turkey.
- 1960: Military coup in Democratic Republic of the Congo.
- 1961: The Coup d'état of May Sixteenth in South Korea. Park Chunghee established presidency.
- 1962: Failed Military backed and Catholic action led Coup in Sri Lanka then Ceylon.
- 1963: Military coup in South Vietnam, overthrowing Ngo Dinh Diem.
- 1963: Military coup in Ecuador.
- 1963: Military coup in Syria.
- 1963: Coup in Iraq backed by the CIA, followed by a counter-coup.
- 1964: Military coup in Brazil led by General Castelo Branco installs the Brazilian military dictatorship.
- 1964: Military coup in South Vietnam, overthrowing Duong Van Minh.
- 1965: Military coup in Indonesia.
- 1965: Military coup in Democratic Republic of the Congo.
- 1966: Military coup in Ghana.
- 1966: Military coup in Nigeria leading to end of first republic. Major-General J.T.U Aguiyi-Ironsi becomes Head of State.
- 1966: Shakhbut Bin-Sultan Al Nahyan, the ruler of the United Arab Emirates was deposed in a bloodless coup, being replaced by his brother Sheikh Zayed Bin-Sultan Al Nahyan.
- 1967: Military coup in Greece. See Greek military junta of 1967-1974.
- 1967: Military coup in Nigeria. Yakubu Gowon comes to power.
- 1968: Coup in Panama by Omar Torrijos.
- 1968: Coup in Iraq backed by the CIA establishes rule of the Ba'ath Party.
- 1969: Colonel Qadhafi overthrows monarchy in Libya.
- 1969: Military coup in Somalia.
- 1969: Pedro Aleixo, the legal vice-president, is replaced by a Military Junta after Artur da Costa e Silva leaves the office due to a stroke.
- 1970: Military coup in Pakistan, Army Chief Gen. Yahya Khan forces President Field Marshal Ayub Khan (who himself came to power in a coup) to hand over power to him.
- 1970: Coup in Bolivia, soon followed by a leftist countercoup.
- 1970: Coup in Cambodia, led by Prime Minister General Lon Nol. See Cambodian coup of 1970.
- 1971: Military coup in Turkey (Coup by Memorandum).
- 1971: Military coup in Uganda led by Idi Amin.
- 1973: A military coup in Chile deposes and kills the marxist president Salvador Allende and installs the military dictatorship of Augusto Pinochet. See Chilean coup of 1973.
- 1973: The President of Uruguay dissolves Parliament and heads a coup.
- 1974: Military coup in Portugal (Carnation Revolution).
- 1974: Military coup in Cyprus sponsored by Greek colonels overthrows Makarios and triggers invasion by Turkey.
- 1975: Military coup in Ethiopia by the communist junta led by General Aman Andom and Megistu Hailemariam.
- 1975: Military coup in Bangladesh overthrows & kills Sheikh Mujibur Rahman.
- 1975: Military coup in Nigeria overthrows Yakubu Gowon. Murtala Ramat Mohammed comes to power.
- 1975: Military coup in Chad overthrows and kills President François Tombalbaye.
- 1976: Military coup in Ecuador.
- 1976: Military coup in Thailand.
- 1976: Failed coup attempt in Nigeria. Murtala Ramat Mohammed killed but Olusegun Obasanjo escapes assassination and becomes head of state.
- 1976: Military coup in Argentina leads to the Proceso de Reorganización Nacional.
- 1978: Communist coup in Afghanistan.
- 1979: Military coup in Pakistan. Army Chief Gen. Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq overthrows the civilian government and hangs Prime Minister Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto after a sham trial.
- 1979: The Coup d'état of December Twelfth in South Korea. Chun Doo-hwan established presidentship.
- 1980: 'Cocaine Coup' in Bolivia of Luis García Meza Tejada.
- 1980: Military coup in Turkey.
- 1980: Military coup in Liberia.
- 1980: Successful coup in Suriname by military officers led by Dési Bouterse that resulted in military rule until 1988.
- 1981: Failed coup in Spain led by Antonio Tejero.
- 1982: Failed coup in Kenya by some members of the Kenya Air Force.
- 1983: Military palace coup in Nigeria. Second republic president Shagari overthrown; Muhammadu Buhari takes power.
- 1984: Maaouya Ould Sid'Ahmed Taya raise to power in Mauritania after a coup that overthrow the president Mohamed Khouna Ould Haidalla.
- 1985: Military coup in Uganda led by Bazilio Olara-Okello and Tito Okello.
- 1985: Military coup in Nigeria. Ibrahim Babangida replaces Muhammadu Buhari.
- 1989: Failed coup attempt, known as the December 1989 Coup, in the Philippines led by Col. Gregorio Honasan.
- 1990: Failed coup attempt in Nigeria led by Col. Gideon Orkar.
- 1991: Failed coup attempt (the so-called August Putsch) in the Soviet Union.
- 1992: Alberto Fujimori launches a self-coup in Peru.
- 1992: Hugo Chávez Frias, current President of Venezuela, attempts a coup and surrenders upon the realization of defeat.
- 1997: Military coup in Turkey, called 'post-modern coup' (February 28), overthrows the coalition government.
- 1999: Military coup in Pakistan. Army refuses to obey Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif's government. General Pervez Musharraf becomes dictator (with the title "Chief Executive") and exiles Nawaz Sharif to Saudi Arabia.
- 1999: Military coup in Côte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast).
Recent coups and coup attempts
- 2000: Unsuccessful coup in Fiji, under George Speight.
- 2000: A coup in Ecuador with strong support from indigenous groups and led by Lucio Gutiérrez overthrows president Jamil Mahuad.
- 2000: Overthrow of President Fujimori in Peru.
- 2002: Coup attempt against President Hugo Chávez in Venezuela.
- 2002: Military coup in Central African Republic.
- 2003: Attempted coup in Mauritania.
- 2003: Military coup in São Tomé and Príncipe.
- 2003: Military coup in Guinea-Bissau.
- 2003: Failed mutiny and Coup attempt in the Philippines led by Right wing junior officers known as the Magdalo Group oakwood mutiny.
- 2004: Quasi-military coup in Haiti.
- 2004: Attempted coup in the Democratic Republic of Congo.
- 2004: Second attempted coup in the Democratic Republic of Congo (June).
- 2004: Attempted coup in Equatorial Guinea (August).
- 2005: Coup in Togo legalized by parliamentary vote but unrecognized by international community.
- 2005: A coup in Ecuador overthrows the president Lucio Gutiérrez and installs the vice-president Alfredo Palacios.
- 2005: Coup by Nepalese monarch, overthrows constitutional monarchy. Restoration of absolute monarchy.
- 2005: Military coup in Mauritania overthrows president Maaouya Ould Sid'Ahmed Taya, who came to power after a coup, in 1984.
- 2006: Alleged attempted military coup in the Philippines targeting President Gloria Arroyo.
- 2006: Alleged attempted military coup in Chad, FUCD rebels claim it was a mass-desertion attempt by the army.
Currently-serving leaders who came to power via coups
- Omar Hassan Ahmad al-Bashir, President of Sudan (1989–)
- Muammar al-Qaddafi, leader of Libya (1969–)
- Azali Assoumani, President of the Comoros (1999–)
- Zine El Abidine Ben Ali, President of Tunisia (1987–)
- François Bozizé, President of the Central African Republic (2003–)
- Blaise Compaoré, President of Burkina Faso (1987–)
- Lansana Conté, President of Guinea (1984–)
- Yahya Jammeh, President of The Gambia (1994–)
- Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo, President of Equatorial Guinea (1979–)
- Pervez Musharraf, Chief of Army Staff and President of Pakistan (1999–)
- Ely Ould Mohamed Vall, Chairman of the Military Council for Justice and Democracy in Mauritania (2005–)
See also
- Contrast with civilian control of the military
- List of protective service agencies
- List of fictional revolutions and coups
- The Origins of the American Military Coup of 2012
External links
References
- Edward Luttwak, Coup d'etat: A practical handbook, Harvard University Press, 1969, 1980. ISBN 06-741-75476.
- Curzio Malaparte, Technique du Coup d'Etat (Published in French), Paris, 1931.
- D. J. Goodspeed, Six Coups d'Etat, Viking Press inc., New-York, 1962.
--Angel 17:07, 28 May 2006 (CDT)
