Ramayana
From The Book of THoTH (Leaves of Wisdom)
The Rāmāyaņa (Sanskrit: (a sandhi form of rāma-ayana = "march or journey (Āyana) of Rāma)" is part of the Hindu smriti, written by Valmiki. This epic of 24,000 verses in seven kānda-s (chapters or books) tells of a Raghuvamsa (Sanskrit - "Of the Sun Dynasty") prince, Rama of Ayodhya, whose wife Sita is abducted by the Rākshasa, or demon, Rāvana. The Rāmāyana had an important influence on later Sanskrit poetry, primarily through its establishment of the Sloka meter. But, like its epic cousin Mahābhārata, the Rāmāyana is not just an ordinary story. It contains the teachings of the ancient Hindu sages and presents them through allegory in narrative and the interspersion of philosophic and devotional. The characters of Rama, Sita, Lakshmana, Bharat, Hanumāna and Rāvana (the archvillain of the story) are all fundamental to the cultural consciousness of India.
The Rāmāyana is set in the Treta Yuga. If we can decide the time of Ramayana, Mahabharat time can be easily determined by the fact that King Shalya who took over the fighting on Kaurava's side after the death of Karna was 50th generation from Luv and Kush (Rama's sons). Lets take an average of 40 years for each generation, that would mean at least 2000 years as the difference between Ramayan and Mahabharat. This would mean that if Mahabharat is dated around 5561 B.C.E. 1 , then Ramayan could be easily dated as somewhere near to 5561+2000 = 7561 B.C.E. According to Valmiki Ramayan's star formation, it can be calculated that Ramayan did happen somewhere between 7000-8000 B.C.E. which is around 10000 years before now.
Synopsis
According to Hindu tradition, Rāma is an Avātara, an incarnation of Vishnu or God. The main purpose of his incarnation is to demonstrate the ideal human life on earth. Ultimately, Rāma slays the rākshasa king Ravana and reestablishes the rule of religious and moral law on earth known in Hinduism as dharma. It has been said that Brahma promised Valmiki, so long as the mountains and seas endure, so long shall the Rāmāyana be read by men.
Book I: Bala Kanda or The Book of Youth
When King Dasharatha of Ayodhya performs a Putrakameshti Yagna, the sacrifice for progeny, a purusha (a divine being) emerges from the holy fire and offers a pot of payasam milk sweet and instructs Dasarath to distribute the dessert to his three wives, the Queens Kausalya, Sumitra and Kaikeyi, in accordance with the status of each. However, there wasn't enough payasam for Sumitra , so Kausalya and Kaikeyi give portions of their dessert to her. As a result, Queen Kausalya gives birth to the oldest son, Rama. Bharatha is born to Queen Kaikeyi, and twins, Lakshman and Shatrughna, are born to Queen Sumitra. When the princes are young boys, the sage Vishwamitra visits King Dasaratha and asks him to send Rama to protect him from demons who have been disturbing his sacrifice rituals. Dasaratha is very reluctant, but relents after his guru, the sage Vasishta explains that Vishwamitra is capable of defeating the tormentors by himself, but wants Rama to do it for Rama's own experience in the art of battle. Rama and Lakshmana are sent to live with Vishwamitra for the latter's "protection". The brothers meet with many an adventure, and the sage trains them in the dharm, or path, of the prince-warrior. As the brothers fulfill their duties, the sage is pleased with them and bestows upon them various celestial weapons.
Toward the end of their stay with Vishwamitra, they receive an invitation to King Janaka's kingdom of Mithila on the occasion of his daughter Sita's Swayamvara, in which she will choose her future husband. A competition is held in which princes and heroes from numerous kingdoms vie to display their prowess and win her hand. For many years, the unwieldy divine bow Shiva Dhanush has been idle because no one was strong enough to lift it, and King Janaka challenges the suitors to bend and string it. After all the suitors fail, Rama succeeds in mastering the bow, not only effortlessly bending and stringing it, but also breaking it into two pieces. He wins the hand of Sita, and after a sumptuous wedding attended by the illustrious from both heaven and earth, he returns with her to Ayodhya. Sita is the incarnation of the Goddess Lakshmi and, in her worldly form, becomes the ideal helpmate and consort to Rama. Together they live the life after which all persons on earth model their own.
Book II: Ayodhya Kanda or The Book of Ayodhya
After some time, Dasaratha, feeling his advancing years, decides to abdicate and retire to the forest. He designates his first-born son Rama to succeed him as King of Ayodhya. Astrologers are consulted and a date is set for the coronation. Just before the fateful day, Kaikeyi, one of Dasaratha's three wives, falls under the influence of a servant, Manthara, who awakens Kaikeyi's jealousy toward her co-wife, the mother of Rama. Kaikeyi goes before the king and demands to redeem the two boons (Hindi-Vardaan) he had granted her long ago after she saved his life in war by her expert charioteering. Exploiting this promise, which the helpless Dasaratha is honor-bound to fulfill, she asks for the two boons as follow:
- Her own son, Bharata, should be crowned instead of Rama;
- Rama should be exiled from the Kingdom for 14 years.
Book III: Aranya Kanda or The Book of the Forest
Rama, being an obedient son, leaves for the jungle with Sita and Lakshmana, who in spite of repeated requests, decides to shun the kingdom and follow his older brother devoutly in his time of crisis. Dasharatha dies of sorrow from having to be separated from his son. Meanwhile, Bharata returns to Ayodhya and, being also devoted to Rama, becomes furious with Kaikeyi for her malicious deeds committed in his absence. He travels to the forest and tries to persuade Rama to return to the kingdom and assume the throne. Rama politely refuses, saying that he is duty-bound to see that his father's promise is fulfilled. Reluctantly Bharata agrees to return to the kingdom, requesting Rama to present to him his sandals. He formally treats Rama's sandals as the reigning entity, and ascribes himself as the representative ruler of the rightful king Rama in his absence. Bharata also vows to end his life, if Rama did not return after the 14 years in exile.
At the time of these events, much of what is now eastern Uttar Pradesh was a huge continuous jungle called Dandaka. When Rama enters it, he sent his charioteer away home, as jungle is no place for horses to live for long, due to tigers and leopards and lack of suitable grazing. The charioteer is upset at this order, but obeys it.
While in the forest, Rama befriends the ancient vulture-king, Jatayu.
The demoness Surpanakha, sister of the demon king Ravana, becomes enamored of the handsome Rama and tries to seduce him during his stay in the jungle. Rama, renowned for his practice of Ekapatnivrata, the vow to practice unassailable loyalty to one's wife, is unresponsive. But Rama's brother Lakshmana, infuriated by Surpanaka's act of willful lasciviousness, cuts off her nose. Surpanakha runs home crying to her brother Ravana. To avenge his sister's loss of nose, Ravana uses the demon Maricha to lure Rama and Lakshmana away, leaving Sita alone. Lakshmana draws a circle in the dirt saying that she will be safe as long as she stays in the circle. At one point she hears a cry that she thinks is her husband Rama suffering, so she steps out of the circle to find him. At her moment of vulnerability, Ravana abducts Sita in his airborne vehicle, the Pushpaka Vimana. Jatayu, seeing them fly, attempts to save Sita, but Ravana, leaving his chariot - and Sita in it - behind engages Jatayu in combat, and cuts off his wings. Jatayu narrates the incident to Rama, who subsequently finds him in the forest, dying of his wounds and his fall from the sky. He breathes his last in Rama's arms.
Book IV: Kishkindha Kanda or The Book of Kishkindha (the kingdom of monkeys)
Rama continues his search in the forests for Sita, with no real idea as to direction or distance - Jatayu died before he could tell him the location of Lanka. While searching, he and Lakshman are attacked by a carnivorous one-eyed (cyclop-like) giant, Kabhandha. Rama kills Kabhandha, putting out his eye and shooting an astra into his heart. Upon dying however, Kabhandha's spirit materializes, revealed as a Gandharva (demigod) who had been cursed to become a monster. The Gandharva then tells Rama to seek out the exiled vanara Sugriva, who would be of vital help in his search for Sita.
Rama and Lakshmana are met by Hanuman, a close friend, follower and advisor of Sugriva. Hanuman voluntarily accepts Rama as his master. He introduces Rama and Laxmana to Sugriva, who was exiled by his brother Bali, the king of the vanaras. Bali was also holding Sugriva's wife captive, but it was actually a wilful act of misunderstanding by Bali[Bali acting as if he misunderstood Sugriva] who wanted to have her as his wife also. Sugriva's followers includes Jambavan, the wise bear. After listening to the injustice committed by Bali, Rama makes him his ally & kills Bali to mete out just punishment for the sin he committed & Sugriva is crowned king of Kishkindha.As an ally for life, Sugriva agrees to help Rama in his search for Sita.
The vanara-soldiers of Sugriva search in various directions, their efforts coming to naught, till they meet another ancient vulture, Sampati, revealed as the brother of Jatayu. Sampati is earthbound and deformed - his wings were burnt when he flew too close to the Sun. His brother, being more hardy, had saved him from falling to his death. While Jatayu was the physically stronger of the two, Sampati possessed a compensating gift of vision. Sampati's vision was incredibly powerful, spanning several hundred yojanas and enabling him to see farther than any living thing under the Sun. Upon hearing of Ravana's killing his brother, he readily agrees to help the monkeys. He looks towards the south, searching from his perch. He is soon able to spot Sita. She is imprisoned in a garden of Ashok trees on the island of Lanka, beyond the Southern ocean. The monkeys now know where to proceed. Miraculously, Sampati's wings grow back, as he narrates this information to the monkeys - his helping them (and thus Rama) has made him whole again. The vanara contigent returns to Rama after Hanuman crosses the ocean & meets Sita as depicted in the sundara kanda.
Book V: Sundara Kanda or The Book of Sundara (another name of Hanuman)
Sugriva sends his contingents of vanaras in each direction to discover the whereabouts of Sita. Hanuman serves the vanar price Angad, who is made the leader of the contingent going to the south. Angad's contingent having reached the ocean are told by Sampati that Sita is at Lanka, inside the Ashoka Vana. The party comes to a standstill: they have no means to cross the ocean which is a hundred yojanas broad. Hanuman, however, being the son of Vayu, the Wind God, is blessed with the ability to fly, and is reminded of his supernatural powers by Jambavantha. Thus reminded of his powers, he immediately regains them as foretold by the rishis that he would regain his full powers on being reminded of them at the proper time. Hanuman thus enhances his form into a towering gigantic one and with a mighty leap takes off across the ocean.
Hanuman finds Sita imprisoned in Ravana's palace garden and says that he is there to save her. She refuses to go back with him, saying that her savior must be her husband Rama. She gives him, her Chooda-mani, a priceless jewel for identification to Rama that he had indeed met her. Hanuman assures her that help will be coming, and then proceeds to destroy Ravana's prized Ashoka Grove. Ravana's demon soldiers rush in to capture him, and he then lets himself be captured by them. Viewed as a spy, Hanuman who has killed Ravana's younger son Aksa in battle, is delivered to Ravana for retribution. Impressed with Ravana's charm, nobility, heroism, and splendor, Hanuman notes the fact that Ravana is, however, "devoted to unrighteousness." Similarly struck by Hanuman's "majesty of appearance and strength," Ravana attempts to ascertain the purpose of Hanuman's visit and his reason for laying "Asoka-grove to waste." Proclaiming that he is a messenger for Rama, Hanuman states that he acted in self defense and advises Ravana to restore Sita to Rama or to fall victim to Rama's wrath. Furious at hearing Hanuman's words, Ravana orders Hanuman's death.
Vibhisana, Ravana's righteous brother, intervenes at this point and counsels Ravana to follow the scriptures. He reminds him that it is improper to execute a messenger, and instead tells him to exact the appropriate punishment for Hanuman's crime. Ravana appreciates the counsel and accepts it. He chooses, instead, to order his demons to set fire to Hanuman's tail in an effort to show that such mischief is intolerable. Enduring the punishment, Hanuman seizes the opportunity to observe Lanka during the day in order to gather military information for the future. Hanuman is "intrigued" that the fire does not burn or hurt him and concludes that it is Sita's prayers to Agni that is protecting him from burning. Hanuman frees himself from his bonds, and with his tail ablaze, flies around Lanka, destroying the town. After which, he returns to Rama with news about Sita and shows him the Chooda-mani as proof of meeting Sita.
Soon the monkey army is amassed at the shores of the Indian ocean. The leaders of the army now face the problem of how the ocean must be crossed. They decide that building a bridge is the only option, and the monkey army is sent off to gather large rocks and stones, inscribe these rocks with the name "Rama" so that it will not sink, and throw the rocks into the sea to form a bridge [1]. The plan works. The army, along with Rama, Laxmana and Hanuman, set off to free Sita from the bondage.
Sundara Kanda not only deals with the Hanuman finding Sita (and subsequently informing Rama), but it has a lot to say about the behavior of a man in difficult situations. Here, every step of Hanuman teaches us how to overcome our difficulties.
A recital of the same can be heard online at http://www.raaga.com/channels/hindi/movie/HD000053.html
Book VI: Lanka Kanda or The Battle at Lanka
In this book, which is often called Yuddha Kanda, Rama, overjoyed at the news of the welfare of Sita, sends a peacekeeping mission, which Ravana rejects. Rama prepares for war and, ably helped by his Vanara army, builds a bridge across the water.
Having reached Lanka, Rama is left with the choice of slaying Ravana, which he does to get back his wife Sita. Rama, in an act which is often debated for the ethical aspects, asks Sita to prove her celibacy through a test by fire. Sita passes the test successfully and is reunited with Rama. Rama, having finished the fourteen years in exile, gets back to Ayodhya and assumes the throne from Bharata and rules his kingdom with rigor and ensures justice for all his subjects. This period is often called Ram Rajya (The reign of Rama), a phrase often used in modern Indian society, as a metaphor for the ideal rule of law.
Book VII: Uttara Kanda or The Book Beyond
The Uttarakanda is the most controversial book, as it contains the story of Rama banishing Sita from Ayodhya, and of his beheading a shudra named Shambuka for performing religious worship not appropriate for his varna. To many, both these actions seem to detract from Rama's reputation as a model of ideal conduct: when he banished Sita in spite of her innocence, merely because the people were gossiping, he is said to have preferred falsehood to truth; and by attacking Shambuka in a state of helplessness (i.e. while he was meditating), Rama violated the Kshatriya code of honour. The end of the Uttara Kanda also includes the birth of Rama's children, two twins named Lava and Kusha.
Significantly, these episodes are not found in any early version of Rama story. The Mahabharata, the Harivamsha, and the Vayu, Brahmanda, Kurma, Garuda and Vishnu Puranas all give more or less detailed versions of the story, but none of them mention either the banishment of Sita, or the slaying of Shambuka. Some consider the entire Uttara Kanda to be an addition, not written by Valmiki.
Book VIII: Lava-Kusha Kanda or The Book of Lava and Kusha
The Lava-Kusha Kanda follows off from the end of the Uttara Kanda and details the Ashvamedha Yagna carried out by Rama's brother Shatrughna in order to expand Kosala. The rules of the Yagna were that a horse bedecked in jewellery would be released. All those that left the horse untroubled would be accepting the rule of Rama while those that blocked the progress of the horse would be declaring war. This episode details some of the early battles waged by Shatrughna in protection of the horse.
The horse went on to be stopped by two young warriors by the name of Lava and Kusha. Shatrughna did not wish to fight these children but was eventually struck down by their bows. This raised the attention of Rama, who asked the children of their identity and was startled to hear they were his own blood. When Hanuman tried to intervene they took him prisoner. The news of this reached Valmiki who ordered the children to let Hanuman be free. As the children found out the truth about their father, the most controversial part of the Ramayana began. Rama wished to take the children back to Ayodhya to be heirs to his throne, yet he made no mention of Sita. It is said that the Earth split and Sita allowed herself to be taken in. The end of the Kanda details Rama handing over the throne to his children and embraced Moksha by submerging himself in the River Saryu.
Characters
Rama
The protaganist of this epic tale, Rama is said to be have been an incarnation of Lord Vishnu. He was the son of the King of Ayodhya, Dasaratha. Dasaratha holds Rama very close to his heart. Rama is said to have been an ideal man. He was one who never wavered from the dharmic path. He was the synosure of everyone's eyes, Ayodhya's denizens loved him dearly, and so did every other human being he met during his lifetime. Even Ravana, his sworn enemy is said to have admired him.
Rama who was the Lord incarnate helped protect Saadhus (spiritual persons) from the Raakshasas. This is metaphorical. It symbolises the fact that the Lord protects anyone who seeks refuge. The raakshasas who were destroyed by Rama symbolise the vices that exist in us.
Hanuman
Hanuman is a 'Vanara' or a monkey. He is the son of 'Vaayu' or the wind God. As a child, he playfully flew towards the sun and tried to reach out to the glowing red orb which seemed like a ball to him. Some versions tell that he actually consumed the sun, and spat it out when his mother and others implored him to return the light. Indra, the lord of the gods punished Hanumaan for his impudence and hit him with a thunder bolt. Vaayu, seeing his son lying lifeless stopped the flow of air. The beings on earth could obviously not survive. Indra realized his mistake and apologized for having hastily meted out punishment to a young child who had not intended to cause any harm. Hanuman was granted boons and blessed with a long life. It is also commonly held that he is immortal. A story is told of his encounter perhaps thousands of years later with his younger half-brother, Bhima, one of the Pandava brothers that fought in the Mahabharata War.
The remarkable fact about Hanuman is that he is very humble. Though he is probably the strongest vanara, and one the wisest beings. He was solely responsible for locating Sita when all hope was lost. He crossed the ocean with one mighty leap, stood face to face and spoke to Ravana, and laid to waste the stronghold of the king who had captured the three worlds. After accomplishing these phenomenal deeds, he jumps back to Raameshwaram and along with the rest of the vanara search party heads to Kishkinda to report to Rama. When they meet Rama, Hanuman does not step up and talk about his achievements, instead, he waits in the background and only speaks when Rama asks him about his glorious deeds.
Lakshmana
Lakshmana is believed to have been an incarnation of Shesha Naga (a divine serpent). With a short temper, loyal nature, amazing intellect, and superb archery skills, he was the ideal companion that Rama could have wished for during his stay in the forest.
Lessons from the Ramayana
A very important lesson from this epic is that the Lord is ready to rush to your protection. He will help you destroy your vices (which are represented by the raakshasas.). The sage Vashishta requested Rama's help. Vashishta could not complete his holy sacrifice as raakshasas kept interfering, with Rama's help, he was able to successfuly complet his 'yagna'.
Ramayana illustrates
- Dharma in the form of Rama, who is the personification of this Hindu concept of duty and harmony.
- an ideal son, an ideal king and ideal husband through Rama.
- an ideal wife through Sita.
- an ideal brother through Lakshmana and Bharata (another half-brother of Rama).
- an ideal unassuming and loving devotee through Hanuman.
- The dangers of lust and ego as seen in Ravana.
- The dangers of keeping ill counsel through Kooni, Kaikeyi's maid and counsillor.
In addition, Ramayana also has the following morals which are not readily apparent
- Think well before promising something. This is exemplified in the suffering of King Dasaratha which was born out of his promise to Kaikeyi.
- Keep promises no matter how hard it may be. King Dasaratha kept his promise to Kaikeyi in spite of her demands being very unfair and painful. "Raghuvamsa reeti sada chali aayi - Pran jaaye par Vachan na jaaye" - It has always been the custom of Raghuvamsa that if required, they would sacrifice even their life in order to fulfil a promise.
- Willingness to forgive even one's worst offenders, if the offender atones for his/her misdeeds. In Ramayana's context, the offensive deed was done by Ravana in coveting Rama's wife and kidnapping her. Yet Rama had the compassion to forgive Ravana if he simply returned Sita.
- Violence (war) is the last resort. All through, Rama only asked Ravana to return Sita to him and only when all attempts failed did he resort to war and slay Ravana. Rama teaches that one should try other more peaceful avenues before resorting to war: 'Sama' (negotiate), 'Dhana' (offer monetary or materialistic gain), 'Bheda' (create disunity among the enemy's ranks) and only finally should you resort to 'Danda' or usage of force.
Thus Ramayana has established a code of conduct which is widely considered by Hindus to be the benchmark for posterity.
Literary works inspired by the Ramayana
Aspects of the Chinese epic Journey to the West was inspired by the Ramayana, particularly the character Sun Wukong, who is believed to have been based on Hanuman.
Valmiki's Ramayana inspired the Sri Ramacharit Manas by Tulasidas in the sixteenth century , an epic Hindi version with a slant more grounded in a different realm of Hindu literature, that of bhakti. It is an acknowledged masterpiece of India.
Much earlier in the Sangam era, Valmiki's Ramayana was translated to Tamil by Kamban as Kambaramayanam in Tamil. Although based on Valmiki Ramayana , Kambaramayanam is a true classic and unique in that Kamban has modified and reinterpreted many anecdotes in Valmiki Ramayana to suit the Tamil Culture and his own ideas.
In the 'Geet Ramayan', the Marathi poet G.D.Madgulkar has rendered the classic as a collection of 56 songs which were first aired by All India Radio in 1955.
Contemporary versions of the Ramayana include Shri Ramayana Darshanam by Dr. K. V. Puttappa (Kuvempu) in Kannada and Ramayana Kalpavrikshamu by Viswanatha Satyanarayana in Telugu, both of which have been awarded the Jnanpith Award. The modern Indian author Ashok Banker has so far written a series of six English language novels based on the Ramayana.
Other Adaptations
Additionally, the Gaiety Railway Theatre Company of Kanchipuram has presented revisionist views of this epic, seeking to restore the pride of the Dravidian people. These versions of the Ramayana diverge sharply from traditional presentations, with Ravana portrayed as a statesman scholar with whom Sita was infatuated, and Rama as a playboy prince with little application or dedication, who ordered massive genocide on a drunken whim. Such characterisations are part of a latent and increasing attempt by Dravidian movement to reassert their culture and independence.
Many other Asian cultures have adapted the Ramayana, resulting in other national epics. These include the Kakawin Ramayana of Java, Indonesia, Ramakavaca of Bali, Hikayat Seri Rama of Malaysia, Maradia Lawana of the Philippines, Ramakien of Thailand, to be witnessed in elaborate illustration at the Wat Phra Kaew temple in Bangkok, the Reamker of Cambodia, the Yama Zatdaw of Myanmar, and the Pra Lak Pra Lam of Laos.
Sugriva's cave of Hampi
Hampi, one of the UNESCO cultural heritage site, is home for natural caves. Amongst the ruins of the Vijayanagara empire, is a cave known as Sugriva's Cave. The cave is marked by coloured markings. The place holds its similarity to the descriptions of 'kishkinda' in Sundarakanda. Rama is said to have met Hanuman here. The place is also home to the famous Hazararama temple (Temple of a thousand Ramas).
Some Landmarks Related to Ramayana Epic
Among the multitude of places referred to in epic of this size, many are not identifiable today. However some are unambiguously identified by the descriptions contained in the text and their placements. These include:
The Rama's Bridge: Across Palk-Strait that flows between India and Sri Lanka. The Dhanushkodi (Dhanushkoti in Sanskrit) is a place in Tamilnadu state of India.
The Rameshwaram Shrine in South India.
The Ayodhya City, the birthplace of Rama. Due to political reasons there is now considerable 'confusion' about its exact location. This matter has been raked and stirred beyond proportions by political parties in India. In fact it has become a sensitive issue in contemporary Indian Democracy.
See also
- Mahabharata
- epic poetry
- Golden age
- millennialism
External links
Original text Template:Sa icon
- oldwikisource:रामायण (in Devanagari)
Translations (English)
- Valmiki Ramayana translated by Ralph T. H. Griffith (1870-1874)
- Site with Valmiki Ramayana Text with Meaning Template:Sa icon/(English)
Online information on Ramayana
- Tulsi Ramayana text, its Gujarati translation and glossary of Ramayana characters and places Template:Gu icon, (English)
- Fast Facts on the Ramayana
- Abridged Ramayana and Mahabharata by R.C. Dutt (1899)
- Online Ramayana (one has to register)
- NASA Shuttle image of Palk Strait Satellite Photo of the Ancient Bridge known presently as Adams Bridge
Other works inspired by Ramayana
- Illustrated Ramayana contains paintings, sculptures, and other Indian art inspired by Ramayana.
- The Ramayana reliefs at Prambanan
- Marathi lyrical representation of Ramayana by G D Madgulkar and Sudhir Phadke
- Sita Sings the Blues - clips of a 21st century animated portrayal of the Ramayana from Sita's perspective
Research articles
- Effect of Ramayana on Various Cultures and Civilisations - (pdf format)
Uncategorized sites
- Weekly podcast on Vedic Chanting, Mantras, Vedic Mythology and stories from the Puranas
- http://india.krishna.org/Articles/2002/10/002.html
- http://www.atributetohinduism.com/Hindu_Scriptures.htm
- Ramayana
- Ramayana Monkey Chant Video clip
- Clay Sanskrit Library publishes classical Indian literature, including the Mahabharata and Ramayana, with facing-page text and translation. Also offers searchable corpus and downloadable materials.
Categories: Hindu texts | Ramayana epic | Sanskrit texts | Indian literature | Religious texts
